MoonScript is a programming language that compiles to Lua. This guide expects the reader to have basic familiarity with Lua. For each code snippet below, the MoonScript is on the left and the compiled Lua is on right right.

Assignment

Unlike Lua, there is no local keyword. All assignments to names that are not already defined will be declared as local to the scope of that declaration. If you wish to create a global variable it must be done using the export keyword.

hello = "world"
a,b,c = 1, 2, 3

local hello = "world"
local a, b, c = 1, 2, 3

Update Assignment

+=, -=, /=, *=, %=, ..= operators have been added for updating a value by a certain amount. They are aliases for their expanded equivalents.

x = 0
x += 10

s = "hello "
s ..= "world"

local x = 0
x = x + 10
local s = "hello "
s = s .. "world"

Comments

Like Lua, comments start with -- and continue to the end of the line. Comments are not written to the output.

-- I am a comment

Literals & Operators

MoonScript supports all the same primitive literals as Lua and uses the same syntax. This applies to numbers, strings, booleans, and nil.

MoonScript also supports all the same binary and unary operators. Additionally != is as an alias for ~=.

Function Literals

All functions are created using a function expression. A simple function is denoted using the arrow: ->

my_function = ->
my_function() -- call the empty function

local my_function
my_function = function() end
my_function()

The body of the function can either be one statement placed directly after the arrow, or it can be a series of statements indented on the following lines:

func_a = -> print "hello world"

func_b = ->
  value = 100
  print "The value:", value

local func_a
func_a = function()
  return print("hello world")
end
local func_b
func_b = function()
  local value = 100
  return print("The value:", value)
end

If a function has no arguments, it can be called using the ! operator, instead of empty parentheses. The ! invocation is the preferred way to call functions with no arguments.

func_a!
func_b()

func_a()
func_b()

Functions with arguments can be created by preceding the arrow with a list of argument names in parentheses:

sum = (x, y) -> print "sum", x + y

local sum
sum = function(x, y)
  return print("sum", x + y)
end

Functions can be called by listing the values of the arguments after the name of the variable where the function is stored. When chaining together function calls, the arguments are applied to the closest function to the left.

sum 10, 20
print sum 10, 20

a b c "a", "b", "c"

sum(10, 20)
print(sum(10, 20))
a(b(c("a", "b", "c")))

In order to avoid ambiguity in when calling functions, parentheses can also be used to surround the arguments. This is required here in order to make sure the right arguments get sent to the right functions.

print "x:", sum(10, 20), "y:", sum(30, 40)

print("x:", sum(10, 20), "y:", sum(30, 40))

Functions will coerce the last statement in their body into a return statement, this is called implicit return:

sum = (x, y) -> x + y
print "The sum is ", sum 10, 20

local sum
sum = function(x, y)
  return x + y
end
print("The sum is ", sum(10, 20))

And if you need to explicitly return, you can use the return keyword:

sum = (x, y) -> return x + y

local sum
sum = function(x, y)
  return x + y
end

Just like in Lua, functions can return multiple values. The last statement must be a list of values separated by commas:

mystery = (x, y) -> x + y, x - y
a,b = mystery 10, 20

local mystery
mystery = function(x, y)
  return x + y, x - y
end
local a, b = mystery(10, 20)

Fat Arrows

Because it is an idiom in Lua to send an object as the first argument when calling a method, a special syntax is provided for creating functions which automatically includes a self argument.

func = (num) => self.value + num

local func
func = function(self, num)
  return self.value + num
end

Argument Defaults

It is possible to provide default values for the arguments of a function. An argument is determined to be empty if it’s value is nil. Any nil arguments that have a default value will be replace before the body of the function is run.

my_function = (name="something", height=100) ->
  print "Hello I am", name
  print "My height is", height

local my_function
my_function = function(name, height)
  if name == nil then
    name = "something"
  end
  if height == nil then
    height = 100
  end
  print("Hello I am", name)
  return print("My height is", height)
end

An argument default value expression is evaluated in the body of the function in the order of the argument declarations. For this reason default values have access to previously declared arguments.

some_args = (x=100, y=x+1000) ->
  print x + y

local some_args
some_args = function(x, y)
  if x == nil then
    x = 100
  end
  if y == nil then
    y = x + 1000
  end
  return print(x + y)
end

Considerations

Because of the expressive parentheses-less way of calling functions, some restrictions must be put in place to avoid parsing ambiguity involving whitespace.

The minus sign plays two roles, a unary negation operator and a binary subtraction operator. In order to force subtraction a space must be placed after the - operator. In order to force a negation, no space must follow the -. Consider the examples below.

a = x - 10
b = x-10
c = x -y

local a = x - 10
local b = x(-10)
local c = x(-y)

The precedence of the first argument of a function call can also be controlled using whitespace if the argument is a literal string.In Lua, it is common to leave off parentheses when calling a function with a single string literal.

When there is no space between a variable and a string literal, the function call takes precedence over any following expressions. No other arguments can be passed to the function when it is called this way.

Where there is a space following a variable and a string literal, the function call acts as show above. The string literal belongs to any following expressions (if they exist), which serves as the argument list.

x = func"hello" + 100
y = func "hello" + 100

local x = func("hello") + 100
local y = func("hello" + 100)

Multi-line arguments

When calling functions that take a large number of arguments, it is convenient to split the argument list over multiple lines. Because of the white-space sensitive nature of the language, care must be taken when splitting up the argument list.

If an argument list is to be continued onto the next line, the current line must end in a comma. And the following line must be indented more than the current indentation. Once indented, all other argument lines must be at the same level of indentation to be part of the argument list

my_func 5,4,3,
  8,9,10

cool_func 1,2,
  3,4,
  5,6,
  7,8

my_func(5, 4, 3, 8, 9, 10)
cool_func(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8)

This type of invocation can be nested. The level of indentation is used to determine to which function the arguments belong to.

my_func 5,6,7,
  6, another_func 6,7,8,
    9,1,2,
  5,4

my_func(5, 6, 7, 6, another_func(6, 7, 8, 9, 1, 2), 5, 4)

Because tables also use the comma as a delimiter, this indentation syntax is helpful for letting values be part of the argument list instead of being part of the table.

x = {
  1,2,3,4, a_func 4,5,
    5,6,
  8,9,10
}

local x = {
  1,
  2,
  3,
  4,
  a_func(4, 5, 5, 6),
  8,
  9,
  10
}

Although uncommon, notice how we can give a deeper indentation for function arguments if we know we will be using a lower indentation futher on.

y = { my_func 1,2,3,
   4,5,
  5,6,7
}

local y = {
  my_func(1, 2, 3, 4, 5),
  5,
  6,
  7
}

The same thing can be done with other block level statements like conditionals. We can use indentation level to determine what statement a value belongs to:

if func 1,2,3,
  "hello",
  "world"
    print "hello"
    print "I am inside if"

if func 1,2,3,
    "hello",
    "world"
  print "hello"
  print "I am inside if"

if func(1, 2, 3, "hello", "world") then
  print("hello")
  print("I am inside if")
end
if func(1, 2, 3, "hello", "world") then
  print("hello")
  print("I am inside if")
end

Table Literals

Like in Lua, tables are delimited in curly braces.

some_values = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }

local some_values = {
  1,
  2,
  3,
  4
}

Unlike Lua, assigning a value to a key in a table is done with : (instead of =).

some_values = {
  name: "Bill",
  age: 200,
  ["favorite food"]: "rice"
}

local some_values = {
  name = "Bill",
  age = 200,
  ["favorite food"] = "rice"
}

The curly braces can be left off if a single table of key value pairs is being assigned.

profile = 
  height: "4 feet",
  shoe_size: 13,
  favorite_foods: {"ice cream", "donuts"}

local profile = {
  height = "4 feet",
  shoe_size = 13,
  favorite_foods = {
    "ice cream",
    "donuts"
  }
}

Newlines can be used to delimit values instead of a comma (or both):

values = {
  1,2,3,4
  5,6,7,8
  name: "superman"
  occupation: "crime fighting"
}

local values = {
  1,
  2,
  3,
  4,
  5,
  6,
  7,
  8,
  name = "superman",
  occupation = "crime fighting"
}

When creating a single line table literal, the curly braces can also be left off:

my_function dance: "Tango", partner: "none"

y = type: "dog", legs: 4, tails: 1

my_function({
  dance = "Tango",
  partner = "none"
})
local y = {
  type = "dog",
  legs = 4,
  tails = 1
}

The keys of a table literal can be language keywords without being escaped:

tbl = {
  do: "something"
  end: "hunger"
}

local tbl = {
  ["do"] = "something",
  ["end"] = "hunger"
}

If you are constructing a table out of variables and wish the keys to be the same as the variable names, then the : prefix operator can be used:

hair = "golden"
height = 200
person = { :hair, :height, shoe_size: 40 }

print_table :hair, :height

local hair = "golden"
local height = 200
local person = {
  hair = hair,
  height = height,
  shoe_size = 40
}
print_table({
  hair = hair,
  height = height
})

Comprehensions

Compiling provide a convenient syntax for constructing a new table by iterating over some existing object and applying an expression to its values. There are two kinds of comprehensions: list comprehensions and table comprehensions. They both produce Lua tables; list comprehensions accumulate values into an array-like table, and table comprehensions let you set both the key and the value on each iteration.

List Comprehensions

The following creates a copy of the items table but with all the values doubled.

items = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }
doubled = [item * 2 for i, item in ipairs items]

local items = {
  1,
  2,
  3,
  4
}
local doubled = (function()
  local _accum_0 = { }
  local _len_0 = 0
  for i, item in ipairs(items) do
    _len_0 = _len_0 + 1
    _accum_0[_len_0] = item * 2
  end
  return _accum_0
end)()

The items included in the new table can be restricted with a when clause:

iter = ipairs items
slice = [item for i, item in iter when i > 1 and i < 3]

local iter = ipairs(items)
local slice = (function()
  local _accum_0 = { }
  local _len_0 = 0
  for i, item in iter do
    if i > 1 and i < 3 then
      _len_0 = _len_0 + 1
      _accum_0[_len_0] = item
    end
  end
  return _accum_0
end)()

Because it is common to iterate over the values of a numerically indexed table, an * operator is introduced. The doubled example can be rewritten as:

doubled = [item * 2 for item in *items]

local doubled = (function()
  local _accum_0 = { }
  local _len_0 = 0
  local _list_0 = items
  for _index_0 = 1, #_list_0 do
    local item = _list_0[_index_0]
    _len_0 = _len_0 + 1
    _accum_0[_len_0] = item * 2
  end
  return _accum_0
end)()

The for and when clauses can be chained as much as desired. The only requirement is that a comprehension has at least one for clause.

Using multiple for clauses is the same as using nested loops:

x_coords = {4, 5, 6, 7}
y_coords = {9, 2, 3}

points = [{x,y} for x in *x_coords for y in *y_coords]

local x_coords = {
  4,
  5,
  6,
  7
}
local y_coords = {
  9,
  2,
  3
}
local points = (function()
  local _accum_0 = { }
  local _len_0 = 0
  local _list_0 = x_coords
  for _index_0 = 1, #_list_0 do
    local x = _list_0[_index_0]
    local _list_1 = y_coords
    for _index_0 = 1, #_list_1 do
      local y = _list_1[_index_0]
      _len_0 = _len_0 + 1
      _accum_0[_len_0] = {
        x,
        y
      }
    end
  end
  return _accum_0
end)()

Table Comprehensions

The syntax for table comprehensions is very similar, differing by using { and } and taking two values from each iteration.

This example copies the key-value table thing:

thing = {
  color: "red"
  name: "fast"
  width: 123
}

thing_copy = {k,v for k,v in pairs thing}

local thing = {
  color = "red",
  name = "fast",
  width = 123
}
local thing_copy = (function()
  local _tbl_0 = { }
  for k, v in pairs(thing) do
    _tbl_0[k] = v
  end
  return _tbl_0
end)()

Table comprehensions, like list comprehensions, also support multiple for and when clauses. In this example we use a where clause to prevent the value associated with the color key from being copied.

no_color = {k,v for k,v in pairs thing when k != "color"}

local no_color = (function()
  local _tbl_0 = { }
  for k, v in pairs(thing) do
    if k ~= "color" then
      _tbl_0[k] = v
    end
  end
  return _tbl_0
end)()

The * operator is also supported. Here we create a square root look up table for a few numbers.

numbers = {1,2,3,4}
sqrts = {i, math.sqrt i for i in *numbers}

local numbers = {
  1,
  2,
  3,
  4
}
local sqrts = (function()
  local _tbl_0 = { }
  local _list_0 = numbers
  for _index_0 = 1, #_list_0 do
    local i = _list_0[_index_0]
    _tbl_0[i] = math.sqrt(i)
  end
  return _tbl_0
end)()

Slicing

A special syntax is provided to restrict the items that are iterated over when using the * operator. This is equivalent to setting the iteration bounds and a step size in a for loop.

Here we can set the minimum and maximum bounds, taking all items with indexes between 1 and 5 inclusive:

slice = [item for item in *items[1,5]]

local slice = (function()
  local _accum_0 = { }
  local _len_0 = 0
  local _list_0 = items
  local _max_0 = 5
  for _index_0 = 1, _max_0 < 0 and #_list_0 + _max_0 or _max_0 do
    local item = _list_0[_index_0]
    _len_0 = _len_0 + 1
    _accum_0[_len_0] = item
  end
  return _accum_0
end)()

Any of the slice arguments can be left off to use a sensible default. In this example, if the max index is left off it defaults to the length of the table. This will take everything but the first element:

slice = [item for item in *items[2,]]

local slice = (function()
  local _accum_0 = { }
  local _len_0 = 0
  local _list_0 = items
  for _index_0 = 2, #_list_0 do
    local item = _list_0[_index_0]
    _len_0 = _len_0 + 1
    _accum_0[_len_0] = item
  end
  return _accum_0
end)()

If the minimum bound is left out, it defaults to 1. Here we only provide a step size and leave the other bounds blank. This takes all odd indexed items: (1, 3, 5, …)

slice = [item for items in *items[,,2]]

local slice = (function()
  local _accum_0 = { }
  local _len_0 = 0
  local _list_0 = items
  for _index_0 = 1, #_list_0, 2 do
    local items = _list_0[_index_0]
    _len_0 = _len_0 + 1
    _accum_0[_len_0] = item
  end
  return _accum_0
end)()

For Loop

There are two for loop forms, just like in Lua. A numeric one and a generic one:

for i = 10, 20
  print i

for k = 1,15,2 -- an optional step provided
  print k 

for key, value in pairs object
  print key, value

for i = 10, 20 do
  print(i)
end
for k = 1, 15, 2 do
  print(k)
end
for key, value in pairs(object) do
  print(key, value)
end

The slicing and * operators can be used, just like with table comprehensions:

for item in *items[2,4]
  print item

local _list_0 = items
local _max_0 = 4
for _index_0 = 2, _max_0 < 0 and #_list_0 + _max_0 or _max_0 do
  local item = _list_0[_index_0]
  print(item)
end

A shorter syntax is also available for all variations when the body is only a single line:

for item in *items do print item

for j = 1,10,3 do print j

local _list_0 = items
for _index_0 = 1, #_list_0 do
  local item = _list_0[_index_0]
  print(item)
end
for j = 1, 10, 3 do
  print(j)
end

A for loop can also be used an expression. The last statement in the body of the for loop is coerced into an expression and appended to an accumulating table if the value of that expression is not nil.

Doubling every even number:

doubled_evens = for i=1,20
  if i % 2 == 0
    i * 2
  else
    i

local doubled_evens = (function()
  local _accum_0 = { }
  local _len_0 = 0
  for i = 1, 20 do
    local _value_0
    if i % 2 == 0 then
      _value_0 = i * 2
    else
      _value_0 = i
    end
    if _value_0 ~= nil then
      _len_0 = _len_0 + 1
      _accum_0[_len_0] = _value_0
    end
  end
  return _accum_0
end)()

Filtering out odd numbers:

my_numbers = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
odds = for x in *my_numbers
  if x % 2 == 1 then x

local my_numbers = {
  1,
  2,
  3,
  4,
  5,
  6
}
local odds = (function()
  local _accum_0 = { }
  local _len_0 = 0
  local _list_0 = my_numbers
  for _index_0 = 1, #_list_0 do
    local x = _list_0[_index_0]
    local _value_0
    if x % 2 == 1 then
      _value_0 = x
    end
    if _value_0 ~= nil then
      _len_0 = _len_0 + 1
      _accum_0[_len_0] = _value_0
    end
  end
  return _accum_0
end)()

For loops at the end of a function body are not accumulated into a table for a return value (Instead the function will return nil). Either an explicit return statement can be used, or the loop can be converted into a list comprehension.

func_a = -> for i=1,10 do i
func_b = -> return for i=1,10 do i

print func_a! -- prints nil
print func_b! -- prints table object

local func_a
func_a = function()
  for i = 1, 10 do
    local _ = i
  end
end
local func_b
func_b = function()
  return (function()
    local _accum_0 = { }
    local _len_0 = 0
    for i = 1, 10 do
      local _value_0 = i
      if _value_0 ~= nil then
        _len_0 = _len_0 + 1
        _accum_0[_len_0] = _value_0
      end
    end
    return _accum_0
  end)()
end
print(func_a())
print(func_b())

This is done to avoid the needless creation of tables for functions that don’t need to return the results of the loop.

While Loop

The while loop also comes in two variations:

i = 10
while i > 0
  print i
  i -= 1

while running == true do my_function!

local i = 10
while i > 0 do
  print(i)
  i = i - 1
end
while running == true do
  my_function()
end

Like for loops, the while loop can also be used an expression. Additionally, for a function to return the accumulated value of a while loop, the statement must be explicitly returned.

Conditionals

have_coins = false
if have_coins
  print "Got coins"
else
  print "No coins"

local have_coins = false
if have_coins then
  print("Got coins")
else
  print("No coins")
end

A short syntax for single statements can also be used:

have_coins = false
if have_coins then print "Got coins" else print "No coins"

local have_coins = false
if have_coins then
  print("Got coins")
else
  print("No coins")
end

Because if statements can be used as expressions, this can able be written as:

have_coins = false
print if have_coins then "Got coins" else "No coins"

local have_coins = false
print((function()
  if have_coins then
    return "Got coins"
  else
    return "No coins"
  end
end)())

Conditionals can also be used in return statements and assignments:

is_tall = (name) ->
  if name == "Rob"
    true
  else
    false

message = if is_tall "Rob"
  "I am very tall"
else
  "I am not so tall"

print message -- prints: I am very tall

local is_tall
is_tall = function(name)
  if name == "Rob" then
    return true
  else
    return false
  end
end
local message
if is_tall("Rob") then
  message = "I am very tall"
else
  message = "I am not so tall"
end
print(message)

Line Decorators

For convenience, the for loop and if statement can be applied to single statements at the end of the line:

print "hello world" if name == "Rob"

if name == "Rob" then
  print("hello world")
end

And with basic loops:

print "item: ", item for item in *items

local _list_0 = items
for _index_0 = 1, #_list_0 do
  local item = _list_0[_index_0]
  print("item: ", item)
end

Switch

The switch statement is shorthand for writing a series of if statements that check against the same value. Note that the value is only evaluated once. Like if statements, switches can have an else block to handle no matches. Comparison is done with the == operator.

name = "Dan"
switch name
  when "Robert"
    print "You are robert"
  when "Dan"
    print "Your name, it's Dan"
  else
    print "I don't know about your name"

local name = "Dan"
local _exp_0 = name
if "Robert" == _exp_0 then
  print("You are robert")
elseif "Dan" == _exp_0 then
  print("Your name, it's Dan")
else
  print("I don't know about your name")
end

Switches can be used as expressions as well, here we can assign the result of the switch to a variable:

b = 1
next_number = switch b
  when 1
    2
  when 2
    3
  else
    error "can't count that high!"

local b = 1
local next_number
local _exp_0 = b
if 1 == _exp_0 then
  next_number = 2
elseif 2 == _exp_0 then
  next_number = 3
else
  next_number = error("can't count that high!")
end

We can use the then keyword to write a switch’s when block on a single line. No extra keyword is needed to write the else block on a single line.

msg = switch math.random(1, 5)
  when 1 then "you are lucky"
  when 2 then "you are almost lucky"
  else "not so lucky"

local msg
local _exp_0 = math.random(1, 5)
if 1 == _exp_0 then
  msg = "you are lucky"
elseif 2 == _exp_0 then
  msg = "you are almost lucky"
else
  msg = "not so lucky"
end

It is worth noting the order of the case comparison expression. The case’s expression is on the left hand side. This can be useful if the case’s expression wants to overwrite how the comparison is done by defining an eq metamethod.

Object Oriented Programming

In these examples, the generated Lua code may appear overwhelming. It is best to focus on the meaning of the MoonScript code at first, then look into the Lua code if you wish to know the implementation details.

A simple class:

class Inventory
  new: =>
    @items = {}

  add_item: (name) =>
    if @items[name]
      @items[name] += 1
    else
      @items[name] = 1

local Inventory
Inventory = (function()
  local _parent_0 = nil
  local _base_0 = {
    add_item = function(self, name)
      if self.items[name] then
        self.items[name] = self.items[name] + 1
        return self.items[name]
      else
        self.items[name] = 1
      end
    end
  }
  _base_0.__index = _base_0
  if _parent_0 then
    setmetatable(_base_0, _parent_0.__base)
  end
  local _class_0 = setmetatable({
    __init = function(self)
      self.items = { }
    end,
    __base = _base_0,
    __name = "Inventory",
    __parent = _parent_0
  }, {
    __index = function(cls, name)
      local val = rawget(_base_0, name)
      if val == nil and _parent_0 then
        return _parent_0[name]
      else
        return val
      end
    end,
    __call = function(cls, ...)
      local _self_0 = setmetatable({}, _base_0)
      cls.__init(_self_0, ...)
      return _self_0
    end
  })
  _base_0.__class = _class_0
  return _class_0
end)()

A class is declared with a class statement followed by a table-like declaration where all of the methods and properties are listed.

The new property is special in that it will become the constructor.

Notice how all the methods in the class use the fat arrow function syntax. When calling methods on a instance, the instance itself is sent in as the first argument. The fat arrow handles the creation of a self argument.

The @ prefix on a variable name is shorthand for self.. @items becomes self.items.

Creating an instance of the class is done by calling the name of the class as a function.

inv = Inventory!
inv\add_item "t-shirt"
inv\add_item "pants"

local inv = Inventory()
inv:add_item("t-shirt")
inv:add_item("pants")

Because the instance of the class needs to be sent to the methods when they are called, the ‘' operator is used.

All properties of a class are shared among the instances. This is fine for functions, but for other types of objects, undesired results may occur.

Consider the example below, the clothes property is shared amongst all instances, so modifications to it in one instance will show up in another:

class Person
  clothes: {}
  give_item: (name) =>
    table.insert @clothes, name

a = Person!
b = Person!

a\give_item "pants"
b\give_item "shirt"

-- will print both pants and shirt
print item for item in *a.clothes

local Person
Person = (function()
  local _parent_0 = nil
  local _base_0 = {
    clothes = { },
    give_item = function(self, name)
      return table.insert(self.clothes, name)
    end
  }
  _base_0.__index = _base_0
  if _parent_0 then
    setmetatable(_base_0, _parent_0.__base)
  end
  local _class_0 = setmetatable({
    __init = function(self, ...)
      if _parent_0 then
        return _parent_0.__init(self, ...)
      end
    end,
    __base = _base_0,
    __name = "Person",
    __parent = _parent_0
  }, {
    __index = function(cls, name)
      local val = rawget(_base_0, name)
      if val == nil and _parent_0 then
        return _parent_0[name]
      else
        return val
      end
    end,
    __call = function(cls, ...)
      local _self_0 = setmetatable({}, _base_0)
      cls.__init(_self_0, ...)
      return _self_0
    end
  })
  _base_0.__class = _class_0
  return _class_0
end)()
local a = Person()
local b = Person()
a:give_item("pants")
b:give_item("shirt")
local _list_0 = a.clothes
for _index_0 = 1, #_list_0 do
  local item = _list_0[_index_0]
  print(item)
end

The proper way to avoid this problem is to create the mutable state of the object in the constructor:

class Person
  new: =>
    @clothes = {}

local Person
Person = (function()
  local _parent_0 = nil
  local _base_0 = { }
  _base_0.__index = _base_0
  if _parent_0 then
    setmetatable(_base_0, _parent_0.__base)
  end
  local _class_0 = setmetatable({
    __init = function(self)
      self.clothes = { }
    end,
    __base = _base_0,
    __name = "Person",
    __parent = _parent_0
  }, {
    __index = function(cls, name)
      local val = rawget(_base_0, name)
      if val == nil and _parent_0 then
        return _parent_0[name]
      else
        return val
      end
    end,
    __call = function(cls, ...)
      local _self_0 = setmetatable({}, _base_0)
      cls.__init(_self_0, ...)
      return _self_0
    end
  })
  _base_0.__class = _class_0
  return _class_0
end)()

Inheritance

The extends keyword can be used in a class declaration to inherit the properties and methods from another class.

class BackPack extends Inventory
  size: 10
  add_item: (name) =>
    if #@items > size then error "backpack is full"
    super name

local BackPack
BackPack = (function()
  local _parent_0 = Inventory
  local _base_0 = {
    size = 10,
    add_item = function(self, name)
      if #self.items > size then
        error("backpack is full")
      end
      return _parent_0.add_item(self, name)
    end
  }
  _base_0.__index = _base_0
  if _parent_0 then
    setmetatable(_base_0, _parent_0.__base)
  end
  local _class_0 = setmetatable({
    __init = function(self, ...)
      if _parent_0 then
        return _parent_0.__init(self, ...)
      end
    end,
    __base = _base_0,
    __name = "BackPack",
    __parent = _parent_0
  }, {
    __index = function(cls, name)
      local val = rawget(_base_0, name)
      if val == nil and _parent_0 then
        return _parent_0[name]
      else
        return val
      end
    end,
    __call = function(cls, ...)
      local _self_0 = setmetatable({}, _base_0)
      cls.__init(_self_0, ...)
      return _self_0
    end
  })
  _base_0.__class = _class_0
  return _class_0
end)()

Here we extend our Inventory class, and limit the amount of items it can carry.

Super

super is a special keyword that can be used in two different ways: It can be treated as an object, or it can be called like a function. It only has special functionality when inside a class.

When called as a function, it will call the function of the same name in the parent class. The current self will automatically be passed as the first argument. (As seen in the inheritance example above)

When super is used as a normal value, it is a reference to the parent class object.

It can be accessed like any of object in order to retrieve values in the parent class that might have been shadowed by the child class.

When the \ calling operator is used with super, self is inserted as the first argument instead of the value of super itself. When using . to retrieve a function, the raw function is returned.

A few examples of using super in different ways:

class MyClass extends ParentClass
  a_method: =>
    -- the following have the same effect:
    super "hello", "world"
    super\a_method "hello", "world"
    super.a_method self, "hello", "world"

    -- super as a value is equal to the parent class:
    assert super == ParentClass

local MyClass
MyClass = (function()
  local _parent_0 = ParentClass
  local _base_0 = {
    a_method = function(self)
      _parent_0.a_method(self, "hello", "world")
      _parent_0.a_method(self, "hello", "world")
      _parent_0.a_method(self, "hello", "world")
      return assert(_parent_0 == ParentClass)
    end
  }
  _base_0.__index = _base_0
  if _parent_0 then
    setmetatable(_base_0, _parent_0.__base)
  end
  local _class_0 = setmetatable({
    __init = function(self, ...)
      if _parent_0 then
        return _parent_0.__init(self, ...)
      end
    end,
    __base = _base_0,
    __name = "MyClass",
    __parent = _parent_0
  }, {
    __index = function(cls, name)
      local val = rawget(_base_0, name)
      if val == nil and _parent_0 then
        return _parent_0[name]
      else
        return val
      end
    end,
    __call = function(cls, ...)
      local _self_0 = setmetatable({}, _base_0)
      cls.__init(_self_0, ...)
      return _self_0
    end
  })
  _base_0.__class = _class_0
  return _class_0
end)()

super can also be used on left side of a Function Stub. The only major difference is that instead of the resulting function being bound to the value of super, it is bound to self.

Types

Every instance of a class carries its type with it. This is stored in the special __class property. This property holds the class object. The class object is what we call to build a new instance. We can also index the class object to retrieve class methods and properties.

b = BackPack!
assert b.__class == BackPack

print BackPack.size -- prints 10

local b = BackPack()
assert(b.__class == BackPack)
print(BackPack.size)

Export Statement

Because, by default, all assignments to variables that are not lexically visible will be declared as local, special syntax is required to declare a variable globally.

The export keyword makes it so any following assignments to the specified names will not be assigned locally.

export var_name, var_name2
var_name, var_name3 = "hello", "world"

local var_name3
var_name, var_name3 = "hello", "world"

This is especially useful when declaring what will be externally visible in a module:

-- my_module.moon
module "my_module", package.seeall
export print_result

length = (x, y) -> math.sqrt x*x + y*y

print_result = (x, y) ->
  print "Length is ", length x, y

-- main.moon
require "my_module"

my_module.print_result 4, 5 -- prints the result

print my_module.length 6, 7 -- errors, `length` not visible

module("my_module", package.seeall)
local length
length = function(x, y)
  return math.sqrt(x * x + y * y)
end
print_result = function(x, y)
  return print("Length is ", length(x, y))
end
require("my_module")
my_module.print_result(4, 5)
print(my_module.length(6, 7))

Assignment can be combined with the export keyword to assign to global variables directly:

export some_number, message_str = 100, "hello world"

some_number, message_str = 100, "hello world"

Additionally, a class declaration can be prefixed with the export keyword in order to export it.

Export All & Export Proper

The export statement can also take special symbols * and ^.

export * will cause any name declared after the statement to be exported in the current scope. export ^ will export all proper names, names that begin with a capital letter.

Import Statement

Often you want to bring some values from a table into the current scope as local variables by their name. The import statement lets us accomplish this:

import insert from table

local insert = table.insert

The multiple names can be given, each separated by a comma:

import C, Ct, Cmt from lpeg

local C, Ct, Cmt = lpeg.C, lpeg.Ct, lpeg.Cmt

Sometimes a function requires that the table be sent in as the first argument (when using the \ syntax). As a shortcut, we can prefix the name with a \ to bind it to that table:

-- some object
my_module =
    state: 100
    add: (value) =>
        self.state + value

import \add from my_module

print add(22) -- equivalent to calling my_module\get 22

local my_module = {
  state = 100,
  add = function(self, value)
    return self.state + value
  end
}
local add = (function()
  local _base_0 = my_module
  local _fn_0 = _base_0.add
  return function(...)
    return _fn_0(_base_0, ...)
  end
end)()
print(add(22))

With Statement

A common pattern involving the creation of an object is calling a series of functions and setting a series of properties immediately after creating it.

This results in repeating the name of the object multiple times in code, adding unnecessary noise. A common solution to this is to pass a table in as an argument which contains a collection of keys and values to overwrite. The downside to this is that the constructor of this object must support this form.

The with block helps to alleviate this. Within a with block we can use a special statements that begin with either . or \ which represent those operations applied to the object we are using with on.

For example, we work with a newly created object:

with Person!
  .name = "Oswald"
  \add_relative my_dad
  \save!
  print .name

do
  local _with_0 = Person()
  _with_0.name = "Oswald"
  _with_0:add_relative(my_dad)
  _with_0:save()
  print(_with_0.name)
end

The with statement can also be used as an expression which returns the value it has been giving access to.

file = with File "favorite_foods.txt"
  \set_encoding "utf8"

local file
do
  local _with_0 = File("favorite_foods.txt")
  _with_0:set_encoding("utf8")
  file = _with_0
end

Or…

create_person = (name,  relatives) ->
  with Person!
    .name = name
    \add_relative relative for relative in *relatives

me = create_person "Leaf", {dad, mother, sister}

local create_person
create_person = function(name, relatives)
  do
    local _with_0 = Person()
    _with_0.name = name
    local _list_0 = relatives
    for _index_0 = 1, #_list_0 do
      local relative = _list_0[_index_0]
      _with_0:add_relative(relative)
    end
    return _with_0
  end
end
local me = create_person("Leaf", {
  dad,
  mother,
  sister
})

Function Stubs

It is common to pass a function from an object around as a value, for example, passing an instance method into a function as a callback. If the function expects the object it is operating on as the first argument then you must somehow bundle that object with the function so it can be called properly.

The function stub syntax is a shorthand for creating a new closure function that bundles both the object and function. This new function calls the wrapped function in the correct context of the object.

Its syntax is the same as calling an instance method with the \ operator but with no argument list provided.

my_object = {
  value: 1000
  write: => print "the value:", @value
}

run_callback (func) ->
  print "running callback..."
  func!

-- this will not work:
-- the function has to no reference to my_object
run_callback my_object.write

-- function stub syntax
-- lets us bundle the object into a new function
run_callback my_object\write

local my_object = {
  value = 1000,
  write = function(self)
    return print("the value:", self.value)
  end
}
run_callback(function(func)
  print("running callback...")
  return func()
end)
run_callback(my_object.write)
run_callback((function()
  local _base_0 = my_object
  local _fn_0 = _base_0.write
  return function(...)
    return _fn_0(_base_0, ...)
  end
end)())

The Using Clause; Controlling Destructive Assignment

While lexical scoping can be a great help in reducing the complexity of the code we write, things can get unwieldy as the code size increases. Consider the following snippet:

i = 100

-- many lines of code...

my_func = ->
    i = 10
    while i > 0
        print i
        i -= 1

my_func()

print i -- will print 0

local i = 100
local my_func
my_func = function()
  i = 10
  while i > 0 do
    print(i)
    i = i - 1
  end
end
my_func()
print(i)

In my_func, we've overwritten the value of i mistakenly. In this example it is quite obvious, but consider a large, or foreign code base where it isn’t clear what names have already been declared.

It would be helpful to say which variables from the enclosing scope we intend on change, in order to prevent us from changing others by accident.

The using keyword lets us do that. using nil makes sure that no closed variables are overwritten in assignment. The using clause is placed after the argument list in a function, or in place of it if there are no arguments.

i = 100

my_func = (using nil) ->
    i = "hello" -- a new local variable is created here

my_func()
print i -- prints 100, i is unaffected

local i = 100
local my_func
my_func = function()
  local i = "hello"
end
my_func()
print(i)

Multiple names can be separated by commas. Closure values can still be accessed, they just cant be modified:

tmp = 1213
i, k = 100, 50

my_func = (add using k,i) ->
    tmp = tmp + add -- a new local tmp is created 
    i += tmp
    k += tmp

my_func(22)
print i,k -- these have been updated

local tmp = 1213
local i, k = 100, 50
local my_func
my_func = function(add)
  local tmp = tmp + add
  i = i + tmp
  k = k + tmp
  return k
end
my_func(22)
print(i, k)

moonscript Module

Upon installing MoonScript, a moonscript module is made available. The best use of this module is making your Lua’s require function MoonScript aware.

require "moonscript"

require("moonscript")

After moonscript is required, Lua’s package loader is updated to search for .moon files on any subsequent calls to require. The search path for .moon files is based on the current package.path value in Lua when moonscript is required. Any search paths in package.path ending in .lua are copied, rewritten to end in .moon, and then inserted in package.moonpath.

The moonloader is the function that is responsible for searching package.moonpath for a file available to be included. It is inserted in the second position of the package.loaders table. This means that a matching .moon file will be loaded over a matching .lua file that has the same base name.

For more information on Lua’s package.loaders see Lua Reference Manual — package.loaders

The moonloader, when finding a valid path to a .moon file, will parse and compile the file in memory. The code is then turned into a function using the built in load function, which is run as the module.

Error Rewriting

Runtime errors are given special attention when using the moonloader. Because we start off as MoonScript, but run code as Lua, errors that happen during runtime report their line numbers as they are in the compiled file. This can make debugging particularly difficult.

Consider the following file with a bug:

add_numbers = (x,y) -> x + z
print add_numbers 10,0

local add_numbers
add_numbers = function(x, y)
  return x + z
end
print(add_numbers(10, 0))

The following error is generated:

moon:err.moon:1: attempt to perform arithmetic on global 'z' (a nil value)
stack traceback:
    err.moon:1: in function 'add_numbers'
    err.moon:2: in main chunk

Instead of the error being reported on line number 3, where it appears in the Lua file, it is reported on line 1, where the faulty line originated. The entire stack trace is rewritten in addition to the error.

Programmatically Compiling

The MoonScript module also contains methods for parsing MoonScript text into an abstract syntax tree, and compiling an instance of a tree into Lua source code.

Knowledge of this API may be useful for creating tools to aid the generation of Lua code from MoonScript code.

Here is a quick example of how you would compile a MoonScript string to a Lua String:

require "moonscript.parse"
require "moonscript.compile"

import parse, compile from moonscript

moon_code = [[(-> print "hello world")!]]

tree, err = parse.string moon_code
if not tree
  error "Parse error: " .. err

lua_code, err, pos = compile.tree tree
if not lua_code
  error compile.format_error err, pos, moon_code

-- our code is ready
print lua_code

require("moonscript.parse")
require("moonscript.compile")
local parse, compile = moonscript.parse, moonscript.compile
local moon_code = [[(-> print "hello world")!]]
local tree, err = parse.string(moon_code)
if not tree then
  error("Parse error: " .. err)
end
local lua_code, pos
lua_code, err, pos = compile.tree(tree)
if not lua_code then
  error(compile.format_error(err, pos, moon_code))
end
print(lua_code)

Two tools are installed with MoonScript, moon and moonc.

moonc is for compiling MoonScript code to Lua.
moon is for running MoonsScript code directly.

moon

moon can be used to run MoonsScript files directly from the command line, without needing a separate compile step. All MoonsScript files are compiled in memory as they are run.

$ moon my_script.moon

Any MoonScript files that are required will also be compiled and run automatically.

When an error occurs during runtime, the stack trace is rewritten to give line numbers from the original .moon file.

If you want to disable error rewriting, you can pass the -d flag. A full list of flags can be seen by passing the -h or --help flag.

moonc

moonc is used for transforming MoonsScript files into Lua files. It takes a list of files, compiles them all, and creates the associated .lua files in the same directories.

$ moonc my_script1.moon my_script2.moon ...

You can control where the compiled files are put using the -t flag, followed by a directory.

moonc can also take a directory as an argument, and it will recursively scan for all MoonScript files and compile them.

moonc can write to standard out by passing the -p flag.

Combined with linotify on linux, the -w flag can be used to watch all files that match the given search path for changes, and then compile them only when required.

A full list of flags can be seen by passing the -h or --help flag.

Copyright (C) 2011 by Leaf Corcoran

Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:

The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
THE SOFTWARE.